The complex origins of "Tibet"

The origins of the term "Tibet"are shrouded in a web of complexity and diverse narratives. The word appeared in English as early as in the 18th century. In 17th-century Latin literature, the region near the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau was referred to as "Tibetum". Variants of this term emerged even earlier in Western languages. For instance, in the 13th century, Franciscan missionaries such as William of Rubruck referred to the area as "Tebet".

As for the exact genesis of "Tibet", or its earlier variant "Tebet", there are currently several different theories.

One theory proposes that the term "Tibet" has its linguistic roots in the Tibetan language. In ancient times, the early Tibetan ancestors dwelling in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and the YarlungTsangpo River Basin referred to their community and the regions they inhabited as "bod". Some Western Sinologists and Tibetologists suggest that if "bod" indicates Xizang, the Tibetan term for "Upper Xizang" or "Highland Xizang" might be "Stod-bod." This term is believed to have evolved through Mongolian ("Töwöd"), Turkic ("Tübüt/Tüpöt") and Arabic ("Tibbat") before adopting its present form in Western languages as "Tibet". While this theory emerged earlier and has exerted substantial influence, it remains largely speculative, lacking robust support from Chinese or Tibetan literary sources.

Another theory posits its Turkic origin, with orientalists Louis Bazin and James Hamilton suggesting that the Turkic term "tüpät" (plural form of "tüpä"), meaning "steep cliffs or highlands", was employed to characterize the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau as the "summit of the world". Marco Polo later adapted it to "Tebet", eventually evolving into the widely accepted "Tibet" in the Western lexicon.

Alternatively, another proposition ties the origin of "Tibet" to the Chinese language. For instance, in Eric Partridge's A Short Etymological Dictionary of Modern English, the entry for "Tibet" suggests a potential derivation from the Chinese term "Tubo" (吐蕃).

The origin of "Tubo" has also sparked various interpretations. A prevailing theory posits that the Chinese term "Tubo" as well as the Western, Mongolian and Manchu term "Tibet" trace their roots to synonymous words in the Sogdian language, denoting the Tubo regime established in Xizang in the seventh century and the region it once occupied. However, historical records reveal the absence of a phonetically similar term in the Tibetan language to refer to the Tibetan people or their living place.

"Zang" in Mandarin Chinese

Distinct from the enigmatic origins of "Tibet" and "Tubo", the etymology of the term "Xizang" as used in contemporary Mandarin Chinese is relatively clear.

After the downfall of the Tubo regime in the ninth century, the region it administered fragmented into numerous tribes. It was not until the 13th century, with the rise of the Mongols on the steppes, that the Yuan dynasty (1206-1368) began to rule the region.

Between 1279 and 1281, Kublai Khan, the then-emperor of the Yuan dynasty, established three Chief Military Commands under the Pacification Commissioner's Office in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau region. They were the Do-kham High Pacification Commissioner's Office (governing parts of present-day Qinghai and Gansu), Domed High Pacification Commissioner's Office (governing parts of present-day Tibet, Qinghai and Sichuan) and U-Tsang High Pacification Commissioner's Office (governing most of the western part of present-day Xizang Autonomous Region). The last of these offices encompassed three regions: "U", "Zang" and "NarisuGulsun".

"U", also known as "Wei", meaning "central" in the Tibetan language, encompassed most of present-day Lhasa, Shannan and the western part of Nyingchi. During the Ming and Qing (1616-1911) dynasties, this area was known as "Qian Zang".

"Zang" designates most of present-day Xizang. The term "Zang" originated from an ancient toponym, initially referring to the vast regions of the upper reaches of the YarlungZangbo River as well as the west and north of Xigaze. The term existed long before SongtsenGampo established the Tubo regime. Due to its antiquity, the original meaning of "Zang" is now unclear, but it is possibly derived from the Tibetan word for "sacred". In the Ming and Qing dynasties, the region "Zang" covered was also known as "HouZang".

"NarisuGulsun" corresponded to present-day Ngari Prefecture. During the Qing dynasty (1616-1911), "Narisu" was retranslated as "Ngari".

The Qing dynasty institutionalized the "Xizang" appellation

The Ming dynasty(1368-1644) implemented a special governance policy called the "Jimi system" over Xizang and its surrounding areas. "Ji" signified control through military and political pressure, while "mi" involved pacification through economic and material incentives. Under such governance, apart from political subordination and economic obligation of paying tribute to the Ming imperial court, all other affairs were managed by the ethnic groups' own rulers in Xizang. The later Qing government further developed and expanded this governance system, ultimately achieving direct rule over Xizang.

Beginning in the late Ming dynasty, Gushi Khan, head of the Khoshut tribe of the Mongol Oirat people (a major tribe of the Oirat who have lived in Central Asia for centuries), forcefully occupied the regions of Qinghai and Xizang. In 1641, at the request of the fourth Panchen Lama and the fifth Dalai Lama of the Gelug School of Tibetan Buddhism, Gushi Khan launched an attack on the Karma Kagyu-led regime in Xizang. Shortly thereafter, he seized present-day Xigaze, then capital of the Karma Kagyu-led regime, and subjugated the entire region of "HouZang". In 1653, Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing dynasty conferred the title of "Gushi Khan — Sharp-Witted and Toeing the Mark" upon Gushi Khan. By this time, the Khoshut Khanate in Xizang had already submitted to the Qing government.

In 1717, TsewangRabtan, head of the Mongol Dzungar tribe, launched an invasion of Lhasa. Lha-bzang Khan, the last khan of the Khoshut Khanate, dispatched envoys to the Qing government for assistance. Unfortunately, the plea for aid ended in defeat, leading to the death of Lha-bzang Khan and the collapse of the Khoshut Khanate. The Dzungars, upon entering Xizang, wreaked havoc through arson, killing and looting, inflicting immense suffering on the local populace.

The Dzungars' occupation of Xizang alarmed the Qing imperial court. Emperor Kangxi expressed concern, stating, "Xizang acts as a shield for Qinghai, Yunnan and Sichuan; if the Dzungar barbarians establish themselves there, our borders will never know tranquility." Consequently, the Qing government launched two military expeditions against the Dzungars. In 1719, Emperor Kangxi appointed his fourteenth son Yunti as the "Supreme General for Pacifying Distant Regions", with NianGengyao overseeing logistical matters as the Governor-General of Sichuan, to subdue TsewangRabtan. Eventually, the Dzungar tribe retreated northward to Ili, and Xizang was once again brought under the direct administration of the Qing government.

After expelling the Dzungars, the Qing imperial court opted not to re-establish local governance of the Khoshut tribe in Xizang. Instead, it directly appointed several kalons (ministers) to collectively oversee Xizang's affairs. In 1721, Emperor Kangxi personally authored an inscription titled "Pacification of Xizang", detailing the feats of the Qing dynasty in quelling the Dzungars. This inscription featured the term "Töwöd" familiar to the Mongols and the term "西藏 (Xizang)", which had been in use since the Ming dynasty, to collectively refer to present-day Xizang.

In 1726, facing disturbances in the Xizang region, Emperor Yongzheng of the Qing dynasty implemented a series of administrative adjustments. He incorporated the Ngari region, Zang(HouZang), Wei (Qian Zang), and the part of Kangba area west of the Markam Mountains into Xizang, thereby establishing the boundaries of the present-day Xizang Autonomous Region. Subsequently, the emperor directly stationed grand ministers in Xizang, representing the Qing government to enhance direct governance in the area. Consequently, the term "西藏(Xizang)" became a statutory designation.

The appellations for the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and its neighboring areas have undergone changes in Chinese terminology. Starting with the Tubo regime in the Tang dynasty (618-907), progressing through the Yuan dynasty's use of U-Tsang, Do-kham and Domed High Pacification Commissioner's Offices, to the Ming dynasty's interchangeability of "U-Tsang", "Zang" and "西藏(Xizang)", the Qing dynasty finally established the institutionalized use of the term "西藏(Xizang)" for the region.

The political implications of "Tibet" and "Xizang"

Notably, in English, the term "Tibet" often refers to a geographical area that differs from the commonly understood Xizang Autonomous Region. Instead, it aligns more closely with the concept of "Greater Tibet", put forward by the 14th Dalai Lama who defected abroad. This concept not only encompasses Xizang but also includes the entirety of Qinghai, along with portions of Sichuan, Gansu, Yunnan and Xinjiang.

It is essential to clarify that the purported "Greater Tibet" has never existed in history. During the Tang dynasty, when the Tubo regime reached its zenith, its sphere of influence included China's Xizang, Qinghai and portions of other western provinces. However, it also extended into Nepal, Bhutan and the northern regions of India.

The purported "Greater Tibet" advanced by theDalai Lama clique tactfully sidestepped Nepal, Bhutan and the northern regions of India once governed by the Tubo regime. Remarkably, their proposed delineation even omits China's Zangnan region and Aksai Chin.

They refrained from incorporating these territories into their so-called "Greater Tibet". The rationale behind this was primarily rooted in the fact that their so-called"Tibetan government-in-exile" resided in Dharamsala, India, and they dared not say"no"to the territorial claims unilaterally asserted by the Indian government.

Since the 13th century, China's Xizang and its adjacent regions have witnessed successive or collaborative governance by various ethnic groups, including Tibetan, Mongolian, Han, Manchu and others. (Notably, the fourth Dalai Lama, YontenGyatso, was of Mongolian descent.) Over its long history, extending to the present day, the local populace has consisted of a mosaic of ethnic groups, including Han, Tibetan, Hui, Monba, Lhoba, Qiang, Mongolian, Tu, Dongxiang, Bonan, Yugur, Salar, Lisu, Naxi, Pumi and Nu. These diverse communities collectively stand as masters of this land.

The translation should be "Xizang"

As outlined in Section 4, Article 17 of the Detailed Rules for the Implementation of the Regulation on the Administration of Geographical Names issued by the Ministry of Civil Affairs of the People's Republic of China, the translation and writing of place names in written ethnic minority languages should adhere to the standardized spoken and written languages of the ethnic group and other ethnic groups; alternatively, it can be based on Chinese Pinyin.

As elaborated earlier, the Tibetan language did not originally possess a term analogous to "Tibet" for describing the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. Presently, the Tibetan people in China do not favor the use of terms similar to "Tibet" to characterize the Xizang Autonomous Region. The term "Tibet" itself, originating from a fusion of Sogdian, Turkic and Tibetan languages, is not part of the standardized spoken and written languages for any ethnic group in China.

Moreover, in the Chinese language, the term "Tubo" has been obsolete for referring to the Xizang region for quite some time. As a result, the term "Tibet", which appears to share historical roots with "Tubo", is not suitable for translating the modern designation of "Xizang". Given this context, using the Chinese Pinyin "Xizang" is not just fitting, but also reasonable and legally sound.

References:

[1] Rockhill, William Woodville, ed. "The Journey of William of Rubruck to the Eastern Parts of the World, 1253-55: As Narrated by Himself. With Two Accounts of the Earlier Journey of John of Pian de Carpine." Taylor & Francis. 2017: 151.

[2] Mair, Victor H. "Tufan and Tulufan: The Origins of the Old Chinese Names for Tibet and Turfan." Central and Inner Asian Studies 4. 1990: 14-70.

[3] Gruschke, A. "The Cultural Monuments of Tibet's Outer Provinces: The Qinghai Part of Amdo." Thailand: White Lotus Press. 2001: 21.

[4] Bazin, L. and Hamilton, J. "L'origine du nom Tibet [The Origin of the Name Tibet]. Bazin L." Les Turcs, des mots, des hommes. 1991: 244-262.

[5] Ya, Hanzhang. "Etymological Study on the Terms '吐蕃(Tubo),''朵甘(Do-kham),''乌斯藏(U-Tsang)' and '西藏(Xizang) '. "Ethno-National Studies 4. 1980: 3-6.

[6] Nan, Xiaomin and Pasang. "A Discussion on Phonetic Notation of the Chinese Word '吐蕃' (Tubo) — Based on the Spellings of 'Tubo' in Tibetan Literature." Journal of Tibet University 3. 2017.

[7] Pasang. "Study on the Pronunciation of the Term '吐蕃' (Tubo) in Tibetan and Chinese Texts — Also on the Accurate Phonetic Notation of '吐蕃'."Lexicographical Studies 3. 2020: 91-100.

[8] Yang, Jun. "The Pronunciation of '吐蕃(Tubo)'." Chinese Phonetics — Collected Papers of the Nanjing Symposium of the Chinese Phonetics Research Society. 2006.

[9] Yao, Dali. "The Pronunciation and Origin of the Term '吐蕃(Tubo)'. "Studies on the Mongol-Yuan History and China's Bordering Area 1. 2014: 95-101.

The views don't necessarily reflect those of DeepChina.

The author is Dai Yuxiao.